DIVERSIDAD GENÉTICA Y MEJORAMIENTO DE PLANTAS MEDICINALES= Medicinal plants and improvement of medicinal herbs

Background: Papaya is a major fruit crop in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide and has primitive sex chromosomes controlling sex determination in this trioecious species. The papaya genome was recently sequenced because of its agricultural importance, unique biological features, and successful application of transgenic papaya for resistance to papaya ringspot virus. As a part of the genome sequencing project, we constructed a BAC-based physical map using a high information-content fingerprinting approach to assist whole genome shotgun sequence assembly. Results: The physical map consists of 963 contigs, representing 9.4× genome equivalents, and was integrated with the genetic map and genome sequence using BAC end sequences and a sequence-tagged high-density genetic map. The estimated genome coverage of the physical map is about 95.8%, while 72.4% of the genome was aligned to the genetic map. A total of 1,181 high quality overgo (overlapping oligonucleotide) probes representing conserved sequences in Arabidopsis and genetically mapped loci in Brassica were anchored on the physical map, which provides a foundation for comparative genomics in the Brassicales. The integrated genetic and physical map aligned with the genome sequence revealed recombination hotspots as well as regions suppressed for recombination across the genome, particularly on the recently evolved sex chromosomes. Suppression of recombination spread to the adjacent region of the male specific region of the Y chromosome (MSY), and recombination rates were recovered gradually and then exceeded the genome average. Recombination hotspots were observed at about 10 Mb away on both sides of the MSY, showing 7-fold increase compared with the genome wide average, demonstrating the dynamics of recombination of the sex chromosomes. Conclusion: A BAC-based physical map of papaya was constructed and integrated with the genetic map and genome sequence. The integrated map facilitated the draft genome assembly, and is a valuable resource for comparative genomics and map-based cloning of agronomically and economically important genes and for sex chromosome research. © 2009 Yu et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

ÚLTIMOS AVANCES EN LA QUÍMICA Y ACTIVIDADES BACTERIOLÓGICAS EN LAS PLANTAS MEDICINALES= Medicinal plants, last advances on chemistry and bacteria activities on the medicinal herbs

1) Plant thioglucosidases are the only known S-glycosidases in the large superfamily of glycosidases.  These enzymes evolved more recently and are distributed mainly in Brassicales.  Thioglucosidase research has focused mainly on the cruciferous crops due to their economic importance and cancer preventive benefits.  In this study, we cloned a novel myrosinase gene, CpTGG1, from Carica papaya Linnaeus. and showed that it was expressed in the aboveground tissues in planta.  The recombinant CpTGG1 expressed in Pichia pastoris catalyzed the hydrolysis of both sinigrin and glucotropaeolin (the only thioglucoside present in papaya), showing that CpTGG1 was indeed a functional myrosinase gene.  Sequence alignment anal. indicated that CpTGG1 contained all the motifs conserved in functional myrosinases from crucifers, except for two aglycon-binding motifs, suggesting substrate priority variation of the non-cruciferous myrosinases.  Using sinigrin as substrate, the apparent Km and Vmax values of recombinant CpTGG1 were 2.82 mM and 59.9 mmol min-1 mg protein-1, resp.  The Kcat/Km value was 23 s-1 mM-1.  O-beta-glucosidase activity towards a variety of substrates were tested, CpTGG1 displayed substrate-dependent and ascorbic acid-independent O-beta-glucosidase activity towards 2-nitrophenyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside and 4-nitrophenyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside, but was inactive towards glucovanillin and n-octyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside.  Phylogenetic anal. indicated CpTGG1 belongs to the MYR II subfamily of myrosinases.

2) The anal. of the aqeous crude exts. of the seed kernels of Chrysophyllum albidum and Carica papaya have shown that they contain such phytochems. as alkaloids, sapponins, tannins, flavonoids, phenols and cyanogenic glycosides in varying proportions.  The anti-microbial tests of carried out on the crude exts. revealed that the ext. of Chrysophyllum Albidum seed kernel had inhibitory effect on the growth of S. aureus (8.6mm) and E. coli (8.3mm) only while the ext. of carica papaya seed kernel showed inhibitory effect on Candida albicans only.  Both seed exts. had no effect on P. auroginosa.

3) Transgenic papaya (Carica papaya L.) was produced with the introduction of replicase (rep) gene for resistance to papaya ringspot virus (PRSV).  In order to investigate the potential unintended compositional changes in transgenic papaya, profiles of volatile org. compds. (VOCs), sugar/polyals, org. acids, carotenoids and alkaloids in transgenic and non-transgenic papaya were obtained resp. by HPLC, GC-MS and LC-MS, and compared mutually by multivariate statistical methods, including principal component anal. (PCA) and similarity anal. method.  Results showed that the compn. in transgenic papayas exhibited great similarity to non-transgenic counterparts for measured components.  The contents of important nutrients of beta-carotene and vitamin C and two natural toxicants, including benzyl isothiocyanate (BITC) and carpaine, were compared by anal. of variance (ANOVA).  The results also showed that content was similar between transgenic papayas and non-transgenic counterparts for these components.  The variation of compn. in papaya caused by genetic effect was slight during two harvesting times during our work.  It is hoped that this study could provide some ref. value for a safety evaluation of transgenic papaya from the compositional point of view, and could also propose a method for discrimination of transgenic food from non-transgenic counterparts.

PARTE UTILIZADA= Used part: Fruto y hoja.

ACCIÓN FARMACOLÓGICA= Pharmacological action: Digestivo, antihipertensivo, para infecciones respiratorias y antifebril.

COMPOSICIÓN QUÍMICA= Chemical composition: El látex contiene la papaína bruta, que está constituída por una mezcla de papaína, quimopapaína y papayaproteinasa omega. La papaína es una proteína que contiene 212 aminoácidos; la cadena se encuentra replegada en dos lóbulos en cuya unión está localizado el lugar activo. La quimopapaína pura es una proteína de 218 aminoácidos cuya estructura y propiedades son semejantes a las de la papaína.

ZONA GEOGRÁFICA= Geografical zone: Argentina y Brasil. 

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Origen: Es originaria de América Tropical y de las Antillas.

Usos:
Combate la infección (forúnculos) de la piel; desinflama la uretra; cicatriza heridas; reblandece callosidades; aliviar alergias; antiparasitaria y contra las lombrices intestinales.
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Distribución
Cultivado. Amazonas, Ayacucho, Huánuco, Junín, Loreto, San Martín, Ucayali.

Usos
Raíz
Infecciones urinarias: tomar como agua de tiempo el cocimiento de la raíz y las hojas jóvenes.

Hojas
Heridas: estrujadas las hojas frescas, se aplican sobre la lesión.
Mastitis: las hojas trituradas ayudan a la cicatrización de las grietas de los pezones.

Frutos
Parasitosis intestinal: el consumo frecuente de los frutos de la papaya, con tres a cuatro semillas cada vez, ayuda a que los parásitos (gusanos) no se instalen en el intestino.
Estreñimiento: el látex del fruto verde, diluido con agua, es purgante fuerte.
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Clima:
cálido y templado. Crece  entre los 0 y los 1.500 metros sobre  el nivel del mar
Partes utilizadas:
frutos y hojas
USOS MEDICINALES
Internos:
- El consumo regular de la pulpa de la papaya mejora la digestión y ayuda a aliviar trastornos digestivos como la gastritis y las agrieras
Externos:
- Las maceraciones de hojas de papaya ayudan a cicatrizar la piel.
- Las maceraciones de hojas de papaya ayudan a combatir los hongos de la piel.
- La leche de la papaya verde se aplica con cuidado en verrugas y callos para desap
PRECAUCIONES
La leche de la papaya verde puede ocasionar gastritis. Si cae sobre la piel puede producir irritaciones.

Ethnobotanical and general use

Nutritional use
The sweet ripe paw-paw fruit is predominantly eaten fresh, but is also prepared in the form of a juice, milk shake, ice cream or is candied. It makes an excellent additive in mueslis and fruit salads. It is also used in salads, sherbets, jellies, preserves, pickles, and pies. The green fruit is cooked as a vegetable. The fruit however has a short durability and cannot be stored for a long time, but may be canned. It is rich in vitamin A and C, carbohydrates
(sugar content: 10 o/o) and certain minerals. The seeds are sometimes utilized as a condiment. Even the shoot is edible as a vegetable.

Medical use
Name of the drug: Carica papaya L. plantae, folia, radix, fructus, semen. The plant principally has digestive, stomachic, vermifuge and vulnerary effects. In general medicine, the plant is used for amoebiasis, asthma, certain types of tumor and cancer, elephantiasis, arthritis, headache, psoriasis, splenitis, ulcers. toothache, colitis, gastrointestinal problems, callus, warts, pectoral trouble, and scorpion stings. It is furthermore applied as a colagogum, emmenagogum, vermifuge, ecbolic (abortive) anthelmintic, as an insecticidal and ascaridicidal, and against ring worms. Generally, it could be shown that anthelmintics may also be antifertility agents. Extracts of various plant parts show effects on malaria and some viral infections. The growth of certain tumors is inhibited. the plant also has certain calmative effects.


Noxious effects
were however also observed: the plant may produce allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma and hypersensitive pneumonitis.

Leaf Although the leaves are principally used as a tenderizer of meat - meat is wrapped up in leaves for a night - they are also of medical interest. They have anthelmintic properties, cure purulent wounds and asthma. A decoction of leaves is applied as a purgative for horses and as an antimalarial remedy for humans. In former times, leaves were also used as a substitute for soap. Their tannin content is low. However, extracts of leaves have antimicrobial properties and act on gram-positive bacteria and mycobateria (e.g. Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli etc.). The papaya cigarettes are recommended as a healthy alternative to tobacco cigarettes. They do not affect the pulmonary tract since they do not contain nicotine, but they are equal in taste, aroma, appearance and quality to the cigarettes made of tobacco.
Stem (shoot). The shoot is locally applied against haemorrhoids and for diseases of the eyes.
Root. The root has a weak antibiotic effect, is rubefacient and vesicant. A decoction of the root is used for haemorrhoids, an infusion for syphilis. Extracts of the root act on gram-positive bacteria and mycobacteria. Decoctions and infusions of the root of male individuals (!) are applied for oliguria, veneric diseases in general, flu, heat, and constipation. Locally applied (e.g. in the form of an ointment) it cures eruptions on the skin and acne. The root emanates an offensive smell which repels cats.
Flowers. An infusion of the flowers is applied as an emmenagogum, febrifuge and pectoral.
Fruit. The most important organ of the plant is the fruit, and the substance particularly wanted is the latex in the fruit. Besides, the fruit contains resins, vitamin A and C. To obtain the latex, immature green fruits are tapped by longitudinal incisions; the exuding latex is left on the fruit to dry out and then the dried product is scraped off the fruit. All properties ascribed to the fruit are also found in the latex. The most important substance found in the latex is papain, a proteolytic enzyme. The fruit has first of all digestive properties. Besides gastric disorders, urinary problems are also cured with papaya fruits. The fruit is furthermore considered to be antidiarrhoeic, laxative, anthelmintic, acting also as an emmenagogum. The juice of green fruits is furthermore utilized for the preparation of cosmetics, to remove pimples etc. However, the fruit may provoke colics in newborn children and abortus in pregnant women.
Seed. The toxicity of the seed is low. The seeds are said to be vermifuge and anthelmintic, green seeds are abortifacient and are applied as an emmenagogum. A decoction is prepared of the dried and pulverized seeds to combat intestinal worms (Ascaris, Taenia .. ). The seeds also have carminative properties and are used for irritations. Extracts of seeds exercise antimicrobial activities on Streptococcus aure us, Bacillus cereus, Escheri chia coli and other bacteria. The aglucone of glucotropeoline in the seeds has bactericidal and fungicidal properties. This antibiotic activity may be used to cure certain intestinal and urinary infections.
Latex. All parts of the plant contain latex, but latex is most abundant in the green fruit and in the trunk. The white latex occurs in the laticifers. The latex is caustic and therefore applied to remove callus. The purgative effect of the latex is used to expel intestinal parasites. Cleaning the skin with latex causes a burning feeling; likewise, the contact of open wounds with latex hurts. Latex is applied to disinfect and cure wounds . Infected wounds and furuncles are treated with latex as well as pimples andwarts. The latex is furthermore employed againstcancerous and lymphatic tumors. Latex is also helpful to cure infections such as flu or to lower hypertension. A very interesting attribute of the latex is that it combats pollen allergies, due to the proteolytic action of the papain. Besides proteolytic enzymes, there are also several alkaloids present in the latex, one of which iscarpaine. The latex also contains an anticoagula ntof blood, inhibiting the action of thrombin on the fibrinogen. Latex in decoction soothes asthma and indigestion. It is estimated that about 1 pound of dry latex is obtained from 8000 pounds of fruit. About 100 g dry latex are gathered from a fruit annually. One kg latex produces about 200 g crude papain. Method of use Fruits are used fresh or the latex is extracted by incisions. Papain is obtained from the latex and industrially purified. Digestive drugs exist on the market in the form of dragees. Digestive effects of the fruits are best when these are eaten fresh.
Seeds are dried and pulverized and a decoction is prepared of them. A nose spray with papain is available against pollen allergies.

Healing properties
Papain is mainly a digestive, but it may also be applied wherever proteolytic enzymes are helpful. Carpaine reduces blood pressure and has properties similar to those of Digitalis. The latex is caustic and helps to remove callus, pimples and warts. Chemical contentsPapain (synonym: papayotin) is a protease or proteolytic enzyme. The crude papain is purified by dissolution in water and precipitation with alcohol. Papain alleviates gastrointestinal diseases, colitis, dyspepsia, and dissolves crusts from burns, and chronic purulent otitis. It eliminates exudates of tracheobronchitis, aids with diphteria, inflammations, infected wounds, acne, skin ulcers, psoriasis, cicatrization of wounds and furuncles . A nasal spray with papain alleviates certain pollen allergies due to its protein denaturing capacity. Papain cures peritonial adhesions after abdominal surgery. Medical interest is being increasingly concentrated on proteolytic enzymes which are used to eliminate proteic material of haemorrha ge (haematoma and bodily fluid). In certain types of arteriosclerosis abnormal deposits in the arteries are eliminated by papain digestion.Papain is also the active principle in purifying beer, in tanning skins, treatment of woollen and silky fibers, in cheese production, manufacture of soap, cosmetics and chicles, in dry cleaning, dyeing and tenderizing of meat. However, papain, chymopapain and other proteolytic enzymes of the plant do not exhibit antimicrobial activities. A very important property of chymopapain is that of curing discal hernia. Carpaine. Carpaine is an alkaloid present in all green parts of the papaya plant mainly in leaves and in seeds. It also occurs in other members of the fa mily and in certain Apocynaceae. Its activity is cardiocinetic and diuretic. Carpaine has pharmaceutical properties similar to those of Digitalis. It also has hypotensory effects and reduces the pulse frequency; it depresses the central nervious system. Although similar to Digitalis in its action carpaine has no noxious effects chemically not being related to digitalin or emetine, it is a heart stimulator and a diuretic. But it not only reduces the contractile force of the heart and lowers the blood pressure; but also exercises a relaxing effect on the uterus. Furthermore, in low dilution, it inhibits the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Besides, it is amoebicid and comabts dysentery. Tropeoline. The aglucone of glucotropeoline inhibits the growth of many gram-positive and gramnegative microorganisms, such as of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and of Penicillium notatum etc.

Adulterations
Papain is occassionally adulterated with starch,
coco, gum arabic, or with resin from the brazil nut.

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Uses: cholesterol, detoxification, tumor, local pain, diarreah, stomach, liver, indigestion, intoxication, poor digestion, digestive problems, worm, weight loss, bronchitis, nasal congestion, flu, coug, kidneys, urethra.                                                 

Origin: Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Caribbean, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Gabon, Guuatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Madagascar, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, USA, Venezuela.                 

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Root: Infusion in alcohol is rubbed on the limbs to treat rickets; for bladder and kidney problems. Infusion of root-bark used as an aphrodisiac; macerated root employed in gonorrhoea treatment. Decoction used externally for abdominal stricture, also drunk for the same purpose. Root is boiled, and the water drunk as an antidiarrheal, as an antimalarial or as a treatment for intestinal worm infection, by the Guyana Patamona.

Bark: Used for diarrhoea in NW Guyana.

Green leaves: cooked for a tertiary malaria remedy; for irregular bowel movement in children. For high blood pressure and painful womb; smoked for asthma. Used for diarroea in NW Guyana.

Flower: Infusion for laryngitis and bronchitis. In milk and butter for an appetite stimulant. Used to treat venereal disease in NW Guyana.

Fruit: Sap (milky latex) is drunk in water for intestinal colic, worms in intestinal mucous membranes, and children's chlorosis. Sap is drunk for a mild digestive and anthelmintic, and to treat sunburn-caused reddish patches; latex for dyspepsia, gastritis and gastroenteritis. Pulp mixed with lard in a pomade to remedy abscesses; infusion of young, latex-filled, green fruit as a children's vermifuge; juice to dissolve warts, hypertension and diabetes. Latex locally applied for toothache. Immature fruit is boiled and eaten as an anti-hypertensive, by the Guyana Patamona. Use for hypertension in NW Guyana.

Seed: Eaten as a children's vermifuge, anthelmintic, laxative; to increase visual acuity.

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Summary
Pawpaw (Carica papaya – Caricaceae) is typically found in tropical regions of Central and South America, the Western Amazon Basin, and some regions of Argentina such as Misiones. Several parts of this tree, including the fruit’s juice, latex, seeds, and leaves, are used in different medicinal ways. From a pharmacological point of view, important studies have been performed in order to determine the antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, wound healing and antiulcer properties of the extracts and main constituents: the alkaloid carpain, and the proteolytic enzyme papain and its derivatives. The antinociceptive activity observed in the seeds and latex are also of special importance.
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Uses. Known for binding and heating properties, the fruit, seeds, sap, leaves, and roots are used.

Leaf: A mixture of the juice from crushed leaves and a small amount of opium is used to relieve muscle stiffness. Leaves blanched in hot water or wilted over heat are applied to affected body parts to relieve aches and pains of menstruation. Roast­ed leaves with a fish paste or fish sauce dip are prepared in a lepet [tea leaves steamed, pressed, fermented, mixed with oil (usually peanut oil); this added to salad] salad to alleviate buzzing in the ear and other ear problems.

Fruit: Sweet and easily digestible ripe fruit stimulates hunger, facilitates digestion, promotes healthy urinary function, increases phlegm, benefits the heart, cleanses the blood, calms the bile, and protects against urinary diseases and gallstones. It promotes health and longevity, and protects against diseases. Soaking the fruit in water and taking the liquid three times daily allevi­ates enlargement of the spleen; eating the ripe fruit also alleviates enlargement of the spleen, as well as enlargement of the liver and hemorrhoids. Nearly ripe but still firm fruit is eaten cooked or in a salad to encourage healthy bowel and urinary functioning. A small amount of powder made from the dried, young fruit is used to alleviate chronic diarrhea. Juice from cut green fruit is applied to scorpion sting to neutralize the poison. The young fruit dipped in salt is eaten as a remedy for diphtheria. Children are given a small amount of the fruit sap together with milk or for indigestion. The milky sap from the green fruit is applied to relieve itching, rashes, ringworm, and other skin problems, including sores caused by venereal disease. The sap, which is also considered the best medicine for improving the function of many parts of the body, such as bone, marrow, and muscle, is used to treat stomach and intestinal pains from ulcers and other condi­tions.

Seed: Ingested in amounts proportionate to the patient’s age, used for deworming.

Root: Preparations made from the roots are used to regulate menstruation.
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Origin:
Native to West Indies and Central America; now cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and South India.

Action:
Ripe fruit—stomachic, digestive, carminative, diuretic, galactagogue. Useful in bleeding piles, haemoptysis, dysentery and chronic diarrhoea.
Seeds— emmengagogue, vermifuge. Juice of seeds is administered in enlarged liver and spleen, and in bleeding piles.

Toxicity:
abortifacient,
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Origin

Jamaica

Folk medicinal uses

The juice is said to be used for boils and was also used for ringworm, warts. worms, and in the treatment of enlarged liver and spleen.

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Origin

Jamaica

Folk medicinal uses

The use of the juice of this plant as an application for boils, warts and ringworm still continues. It is also used for toothache. In Maya medicine it appears in several prescriptions for sores and eruptions. The milky juice of the fruit is used in Trinidad for dyspepsia. Locally the fruit is said to be "good for the blood". Among more recent uses of papain are the following:- to dissolve the membranes commonly formed in diphtheria, as a nasal spray (patented) for the treatment of some allergies to treat peritoneal adhesions resulting from abdominal surgery and in the treatment of carbuncles and burn scars.

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Origin:

Nigeria

Part used

leaves,seeds,fruits

Medicinal uses

Gonorrhoea,syphilis,mental disorders

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Origin:
Mexico
Medicinal  properties:
- Asthma (boiled leavesas plaster)
- Digestive (pulp)
- Insect bite (latex)
- Meat tenderizer (seeds)
- Seeds used to expel worms

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Origin
Mizoram, Northeast India
Parts used
-Latex of raw fruit: Remove freckles from the skin blemishes
-Fruit pulp: Skin lotion

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